Neoclassical architecture, also referred to as Classical Revival, is a revival period that references the architectural proportions and traditions of classicism. This style of construction was popularized from the mid-18th century to the early 20th century and was commissioned for numerous significant public buildings during this era. All revival periods are an interpretation of the past based on observation, appreciation, and study of historic buildings or, in some cases, ancient ruins. Neoclassicism draws from the wealth of history, commencing with Greek and Roman construction. Believed to have gained momentum in the 1750s, Neoclassical design appealed to public interest due to the archeological discoveries and grew in popularity due to the works of prominent architects like Robert Adam and John Sloane. Andrea Palladio’s Four Books of Architecture and Vitruvius’s De Architectura were influential texts in shaping Neoclassical design and the return to a kind of architectural purity rooted in antiquity. As a result, neoclassicism departed from the opulent design of the Baroque period and whimsical asymmetry of Rococo, preferring a more stoic aesthetic to dynamic architectural movement.
La Madeleine, Paris, France; Completed 1828.
As with all architectural and artistic movements, the Neoclassical conveys various symbolic meanings. Naturally, stylistic differences varied based on location and purpose; however, one prominent and powerful meaning deeply connected to the neoclassical is understood by its roots in antiquity. The idea that classical construction is bound to architectural history dating back thousands of years, serving governments and peoples of varying cultures, unites the style with a sense of heritage, integrity, and enduring strength.
Temple of Hephaestus, 415 BC.
Typically built on a grand scale, Neoclassical buildings often feature Doric and or Ionic columns, limited ornamentation, rectangular or square floor plans, elements of Greek and Roman design, including porticos and friezes, and domed, flat, or gable roofs. Similar to the exterior construction, the interiors are inclined to geometric ornamentations, often utilizing low relief to dramatize the effect of light and shadow. Painted decoration also follows geometric patterns. Understanding the types of painting techniques used in neoclassical interiors requires a review of ancient Greek, Pompeian, and Roman decorative patterns.
The Panthéon (originally: Church of Sainte-Geneviève), Paris, France; 1790.
Greek ornament cultivated a high standard of perfection in regard to geometric construction in comparison to previous decorative styles. For this reason, the purity of Greek designs laid the foundation for a myriad of other architectural styles. Interestingly, many Greek designs were solely decorative, that is to say void of symbolism and simply designed to break up large geometric shapes.
Owen Jones, Grammar of Ornament, Greek No. 2 & 8
Wilhelm Zahn published several volumes, including 100 plates on discoveries made in Pompeii and Herculaneum between 1828 and 1830. These plates included studies on color theory, decorative motifs, stencil decorations, wall murals, and the overall geometric construction found in ancient wall paintings. Zahn’s research greatly influenced the interior decoration of the time, contributing to the neoclassical movement. Pompeian decoration features elements of both Greek and Roman design, depending on the time, which was broken into four styles: Incrustation, Architectural, Ornamental, and Intricate. The styles are founded on fundamental Grecian principles of design and grow progressively more ornate as they incorporate classical Roman decoration.
The Splendor of Roman Wall Painting, Wilhelm Zahn.
The discovery and study of Pompeian wall paintings, specifically the proportions of interior decorations, greatly influenced the works of Robert Adam. The dado, wall panels, frieze, and columns all adhered to a mathematical arrangement that was adapted during the Neoclassical period. The examples below, featuring the work of Robert and James Adam, show the influence of Pompeian decoration and proportion in their interiors.
James Bolton, The Architecture of Robert & James Adam.
The influence of Roman decoration on the four Pompeian styles, gradually growing more ornamental, reflected a distinction between the Greeks and Romans in their general approach to decoration. The Greeks were focused on the purity of form and a desire for perfection that was intended to reflect the gods. The Romans, however, were building an empire, centered on the feats of men, supported by the approval of the gods. Departure from simple geometric forms with the use of applied ornament sought to dazzle the viewer with quantity and detail. Artistic risks were taken for the sake of decoration. An example of this is the Romans’ most iconic architectural invention, the Corinthian capital. The acanthus does not grow directly from the geometry as would in Greek construction, nor imitate nature literally as with the Egyptians. Applied decoration encouraged new kinds of creativity in Roman architecture and decoration; no longer was the architect bound to the confines of geometry or the literal principles of nature.
The Splendor of Roman Wall Painting, Wilhelm Zahn
Born for its original purpose as temple architecture, the grand scale and simple geometry of the classical style offer a powerful message in church architecture. In the image below (left) of a historic scheme at the Baltimore Basilica, America’s first Basilica, the architecture conveys the idea that Catholicism is connected not only to the ancient tradition but also to the American tradition. In a similar way, the interior to the right, First Church of Christ in Woodbridge, Connecticut, intends to deliver a similar message. The congregational church, once the state church in the United States, directly reflected American ideals and the desire for the good life. Both interiors are decorated through the breakdown of geometric shapes, both painted and in relief. The harmony of the geometry follows logically throughout the interior, intending to offer a sense of peace.
Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Baltimore, Maryland, 1910. First Church of Christ, Woodbridge, Connecticut, 1832.
The desire for clean order permeated culture from interior decoration to city planning. It is interesting to note that the rise of neoclassicism corresponded with a new approach to city planning. Explicitly expressed in Haussmann’s plan for the renovation of Paris, which transformed the city from medieval to modern with wide, bright streets and architectural uniformity. Though simple in construction with numerous architectural treatises and precedents to draw upon, neoclassical was and continues to be a commanding architectural style. The ancient principles of symmetry and proportion connect even the newest classical buildings to a rich lineage of architectural history, embodying concepts of reason, order, and beauty that have shaped the built environment since the beginning of time.
