As noted by Vitruvius in his Ten Books on Architecture, “the architect should be equipped with knowledge of many branches of study and varied kinds of learning, for it is by his judgement that all work done by the other arts is put to the test.” For the architect’s education, Vitruvius lists the necessity for competence in communication, drawing, geometry, history, philosophy, music, medicine, law, and astronomy. The architect’s education must be diverse for reasons of both purpose and construction; he or she must understand the purpose of the commission, be it a church, school, government building, or home, as well as understand how the necessary trades come together in order to build.
The following trades have been highlighted to give an understanding of how craftsmen come together under an architect or master builder to bring architectural plans to reality.
Carpentry
Carpentry consists of shaping wood into functional designs. The work of a carpenter demands both construction functionality as well as decorative capabilities relating to detailed carvings. Historically, there are various types of woodworking, including barrel making, timber framing, joinery, cabinet making, and shipwrighting. Ancient tools, including chisels, saws, hammers, and planes, are still used to this day. However, in the age of mechanization, most carpentry is completed through mass production methods. Today, carpentry generally refers to the design of windows, doors, furniture, and ornamental elements. Like most trades, the methods were passed down from master to apprentice by way of a practical process of on-the-job training.
Examples of ornamental woodwork at St. Mary St. Catherine after Canning performed conservation and restoration services.
Timber Framing and “Post-and-Beam” Construction
These disciplines refer to the traditional methods of construction utilizing joined timbers fitted securely with wooden pegs to create structures. Timber framing has been used in construction since antiquity. Cultures all around the world have developed their own approach to timber framing based on available materials, climate, and style preferences. In some building traditions, the timber is left showing on the exterior; these constructions are called half-timbered and are very popular in German, French, and English building styles. Prior to the industrial era, raising the timber frame was a community activity where farmers and townspeople would help their neighbors to bring the heaviest beams into place.
Example of Timber Framing done in Germany
Stone Carving
Historically, the stone carving trade contributed both to statuary and fine art pieces as well as architectural moldings and lettering. Like masonry and timber framing, stone carving dates back to the earliest known civilizations, with some of the most impressive ruins carved directly from cliffs like Petra in southern Jordan. The stone carver requires a precise strength that allows him to take away no more and no less of the stone in order to achieve his goal. Stone working tools have evolved little since the discovery of iron and steel with the exception of water jets and diamond saws used on the industrial level. Prior to hard metals, stone carvers used a harder stone against a softer one. The durability of stone leaves impressive ruins from many civilizations, which has aided in language studies with the preservation of lettering in artifacts like the Rosetta Stone, as well as cultural studies in general. Today, stone carving is largely supplemented by mechanical methods, including 3D rendering and CNC, often combined with traditional methods to achieve a precise product nuanced by the human hand.
Some of the Legionnaire Statues at Union Station after we conserved and restored them.
Masonry
Stone constructions and shelters have been an important part of the built environment since the earliest civilizations. This ancient craft, dependent on the natural building materials available, with an applied understanding of both chemistry and physics, brought to life creations still standing and admired to this day. In the Middle Ages, masonry became its own specialized trade rather than simply falling under the umbrella of the architect and master builder. It is at this time that some of the most unbelievably elaborate stone and brick structures are built. In the advent of modern technology, traditional masonry remains crucial to the construction processes, especially as it pertains to a sound understanding of methods and materials. In order to effectively restore historic buildings of 100 or 900 years old, a thorough understanding of how stone is laid and the compatibility of the mortar with adjacent materials, combined with the climate, is not to be underestimated.
St. Mary’s Chapel at Boston college after we performed conservation cleaning on the historic stone.
Plaster
Plaster is an ancient building technique that has allowed human beings to build permanent constructions for centuries. Generally speaking, plaster is a process where a wet mixture is applied to a surface or cast and then left to dry. Though there are various ways of making a plaster mixture, the basic ingredients remain consistent: binder such as lime or gypsum, aggregate such as sand, and water. Additionally, ingredients may be added to speed up or slow down the drying process, as well as horse hair or burlap to increase the tensile strength of the mixture. The most common types of plaster used today are plaster used for interior walls, ceilings, moldings, ornaments, and cast elements; stucco for exterior surfaces; and arguably, mortar for masonry. To read more on plaster, click here.
Garrett Hall at the University of Virginia after we executed plaster conservation and restoration for the ceiling.
Blacksmithing
Another historic trade that has been instrumental to historic construction relates to metalsmithing. Blacksmiths notably contribute to objects such as gates, grilles, railings, fixtures, sculpture, decoration, etc., forged of wrought iron and steel. Through a process of heating the metal in a forge, the item is then hammered into shape. The color of the metal while heating in the forge indicates when the metal is ready to be worked. Several techniques beyond hammering are combined to attain the desired shape. Oftentimes, the design, such as a grill, will be composed of a number of separate pieces that are then welded together to make a complete design. Though mechanized methods have largely overrun the blacksmithing industry, a growing community of tradesmen and women may be found in the Artists Blacksmiths’ Association of North America as well as the British Artist Blacksmith Association.
Example of blacksmithing.
Decorative Painting
Decorative painting has been used since the earliest civilizations as a form of adornment, self-expression, and communication of ideals and beliefs. There are a number of decorative painting techniques, including stenciling, trompe l’oeil, gilding, and faux finishes, among others. Stenciling relates to a process of creating a repeating motif within an interior using a stencil made of metal or plastic. A single motif may require numerous stencils overlaid; a stencil for every color in the design. Trompe l’oeil or illusionary painting refers to a decorative technique that uses light and shadow to give the illusion of a three-dimensional object. Gilding relates to the application of metal leaf to both interior and exterior objects. Faux finishes refer to the simulation of marble, wood, stone, or tile with paint or plaster. Decorative painting should be designed in respect to the architectural design within which it exists as well as ordered to the purpose of the construction. In this sense, the decoration should grow from the architecture to convey the more nuanced symbolism and meaning pertaining to the interior. To read more on decorative painting, click here.
Decorative painting, specifically trompe l’oeil, being done in-studio for the First Church of Christ in Woodbridge, CT.
Stained Glass
The stained glass craft was heavily developed during the medieval period as building trends shifted towards Gothic architecture. Architectural glass is typically ⅛ inch in thickness in order to sustain standard wind gusts and the glass pieces are held together with lead cames. Glass designs can be achieved in a number of different fashions from simply arranging different colored glass within the pattern provided by the lead cames to painting or combining with etching the design into the glass to achieve a more precise design.
Glass designs typically begin with drawn cartoons, which determine the placement of the cames with the selection of different colors of glass. Glass is then cut to the respective shapes determined by the cartoon and arranged within the design. If the glass is to be painted, the paint is made of a metallic oxide and ground glass mixture, then applied with different brushes to achieve different textures. Finally, the painted glass can be scratched to reveal precise details in the design if desired. Once the painting process is complete, the pieces are heated in a kiln to fix the paint to the glass. Additionally, techniques including the application of silver oxide to the back of the glass will produce a yellow-orange color when heated in the kiln, which gives stained glass its name. The painted glass pieces are then fixed over the cartoon within the carefully soldered lead cames. When the design is complete within a panel, the glass and cames are coated with glazing cement to prevent leaks and then smeared with a chalk mixture called whiting to harden the cement. The panel is then cleaned, and after a few days of setting it is ready for installation.
One of the Nave stained glassworks, likely designed by E.S. Oudinot, in the Belmont Chapel after we performed decorative artwork restoration.
Conclusion
It is natural that with time and advancements, the trades evolve. However, certain aspects remain consistent regardless of innovation: understanding of materials and a methodical approach. Of the two, methodology is more likely to adapt while materials will remain consistent. And yet, a cautious and respectful approach to the past’s manner of construction should temper methodology. When adopting new technologies, these must be sparing and carefully tested so as not to diminish long-term quality and therefore lead to the loss of a trade’s integrity. The craftsman is continually practicing his or her art and continually testing out alternative methods in a methodical manner to improve the result and retain the quality.
Many of the trades listed above have been in practice since antiquity. Construction and design are fundamentally human in the sense that architecture extends far beyond the basic need for shelter and appeals to human creativity both in process and appreciation. In this way, the works of human hands represented throughout the history of the trades connect us to our ancestors. Since the dawn of time, human beings have used the resources of their local environments to build and adorn their homes, churches, entertainment spaces, and civic buildings. These trades, the methods, and materials have been passed down for generations, with the common thread including men and women working with their hands within the limitations of natural materials.
In modern times, not only are there numerous synthetic materials available at lower cost, but also, mechanized methods that often outprice handwork. Only time will tell the consequences of the decline in mind-to-hand processes demanded of the trades on human civilization in general and indeed, on each individual. For the physical and creative reward of a job well done found in the trades, subconsciously desired by most, is unmatched by an economy reduced to marketing, sales, and banking; such a society leaves behind nothing of lasting worth.
